Web15/09/ · Check out more papers on Democracy Economic Growth Economic Inequality The theme of this essay is: the importance of a study of other semi-developed countries Web16/08/ · Developing Countries Essay adminAugust 16, In this essay I’m traveling to speak about this inquiry. Since this is a really broad topic I could speak about Web17/07/ · Developing Country., With a closer view of the economy of a developing country, microcredit and other related type of financing activities most of the times exists Estimated Reading Time: 8 mins
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The theme of this essay is: the importance of a study of other semi-developed countries as they struggle for economic growth, the elimination of mass poverty and, at the political level, for democratisation and the reduction of reliance on coercion. New countries are finding their voices in all sorts of ways and are managing to developing countries essay an international audience. Don't use plagiarized sources. South Africa is not least among them; contemporary international consciousness of the travail of our particular path towards modernity testifies at least to a considerable national talent for dramatic communication and for those who care to look more deeply a far from extinct tradition of moral conscientiousness.
One aspect of this flowering is a rapidly growing crop of social scientific studies of semi-developed countries of which this university is fortunate to have a substantial collection, contained mainly in the library of Jan Smuts House. From this literature, one can extract five themes of particular interest. The first is the problem of uneven development and effective national unification, especially in deeply divided societies. Capitalist development has impinged on semi-developed countries from outside rather than transforming slowly from within, incorporating different groups in different ways. Particular problems arise when differential incorporation coincides in substantial measure with boundaries between ethnic groups, developing countries essay.
Gordon Tullock has argued that this is an additional reason for preferring market-based rather than state-led economic growth in deeply divided societies. In itself it is, but the secondary effects of different paths on distribution have to be taken into account. In so far as they lead to worsening differentials between groups, the possibility of heightened conflict is created. The only long-term hope is to make ethnic boundaries less salient; the happiest outcome would seem to be when ethnicity becomes decorative in a high income economic environment. This is developing countries essay to be the work of decades, perhaps of centuries; even so, appalling retrogressions always seem to remain possible. The prisoners will be jointly better off if they do not inform on each other, but each prisoner will be better off if he informs on the other, while the other does not inform on him.
Attempts at individual maximisation may lead to both prisoners informing on each other which leads to the worst joint outcome. Developing countries essay dilemma arises because of the absence of the opportunity for co-operation. Under such conditions, negotiation skills are at a premium. There are also advantages in the acceptance of a deontological liberal philosophy which in the shorthand of political philosophers places the right over the good. This involves seeking to regulate social relations by just procedures while leaving individuals as free as possible to pursue their own, diverse conceptions of the good life. Such an enterprise has a better chance of success if its conception of justice implies that attention should be paid simultaneously to the reduction of poverty, developing countries essay.
The analytical Marxist, Adam Przeworski has analysed analogous problems which arise in the case of severe class conflict. In his view, social democratic compromises are held together by virtue of the propensity of capitalists to reinvest part of their profits with the effect of increasing worker incomes in the future. Class compromise is made possible by two simultaneous expectations: workers expect that their incomes will rise over time, while capitalists expect to be able to devote some of their profits to consumption. In conditions of severe class conflict, these expectations about the future become uncertain, time horizons shorten, workers become developing countries essay, capitalists disinvest and political instability results. Three forms of resolution are available: stabilising external intervention, negotiation or renegotiation of a social contract or the strengthening of the position of one or other class by a shift towards conservatism or revolution.
The second theme in the literature on semi-developed countries has to do with their position within the world economy, developing countries essay. Three related sub-themes can be identified. Firstly, there has been a debate about the forms and limits of the diffusion of industrialisation, developing countries essay. Dependency theory — now somewhat out of fashion, since its predictions of severe limitations on industrialisation in developing countries have been falsified — asserted that relationships between developing and developed countries are such as to keep the latter in perpetual economic subordination. The contrary thesis — that advanced industrial countries have had to deal with increased competition arising from quite widespread diffusion — now seems more plausible.
lass compromise reached at the level of the nation state and is ushering in a period of global class conflict. If there is any truth in this hypothesis at all, it would have to be qualified both by a careful study of precisely how the capital and trade flows of the s differed from those of earlier periods and the sorts of changes in national policy choices capable of delivering a broadly-based rise in living standards which follow from these differences. Even if some options may have disappeared, it does not follow that new ones are not available. Finally, developing countries essay, there has been a preoccupation with the problems of structural adjustment in both developed and developing economies necessitated by a changing international environment. Structural adjustment is a subject for both economic and political analysis.
At the economic level the issues of maintaining macroeconomic balance, changing industrial and manpower policy and protecting the poor against a period of deflation which is — or seems to be — necessary in many cases, all have to be considered. Political problems arise when it comes to the distribution of the burdens of adjustment and the creation of new capacities for development, developing countries essay. Identification and study of the capacities available to avoid undesirable outcomes are of considerable interest, developing countries essay. The third theme in the semi-developed country literature is that of the relationship between economic inequality and political conflict.
Characteristically, semi-developed countries have more unequal distributions of income between households than developed countries. It used to be thought that inequality peaked at the intermediate stage of development, partly because of limitations of the spread of education and therefore of human capital and partly because low-paying sectors continued to account for a substantial proportion of employment. Recent evidence has thrown developing countries essay on the developing countries essay that inequality necessarily increases during the early stages of development; it is much clearer that it tends to decrease during the later stages.
The relationship between economic inequality and political conflict is also complex: studies of cross-national correlations between indicators of the two phenomena have led to unclear, even contradictory results. One reasonably robust result is that revolutions at a relatively early stage of development have much to do with inequality in land holdings. But coherent fmdings in semi-developed countries are virtually non-existent. Part of the reason for this is mindless number-crunching developing countries essay insufficient attention paid to the theoretical tradition dealing with conflict and revolution.
There is probably quite a lot to be said, for instance, developing countries essay, for the Hobbesian view that the proximate cause of violent conflict is itself political in the form of the weakening of the power of the state. Economic factors may also matter, but among these, developing countries essay, income distribution may be relatively unimportant and improvements may play as significant a role as deterioration, developing countries essay. Rational actor models of regime change have recently appeared in the political science literature. John Roemer, for instance, conceives of revolution as a two person game between the present ruler whom he calls the Tsar and a revolutionary entrepreneur, developing countries essay, whose name is Lenin.
In his attempt to ovethrow the Tsar, developing countries essay, Lenin can propose redistribution of the fixed pie of income. The Tsar can announce a list of penalties which define what each agent who chooses to join Lenin will forfeit, should the revolution fail. Each possible coalition of the population has a developing countries essay of succeeding in making the revolution, depending on its size and composition, developing countries essay. Lenin chooses the income redistribution which maximises the probability of overthrowing developing countries essay Tsar and the Tsar in turn chooses the list of penalties which minimises this maximum value. The solution to this minimax game defines the instability of the regime, i. the probability tht it will be overthrown.
From game theoretical results, Roemer is able to draw conclusions about the strategies of the players according with developing countries essay. For instance, the Tsar will treat the poor harshly and let off the rich lightly if the conditional probabilities of revolution by coalitions are the least bit sensitive to the penalties announced. Lenin, on the other hand, will only propose a progressive redistribution of income as his optimal strategy under some circumstances, developing countries essay. Highly probable revolutions are highly polarised revolutions.
Lurking in this literature is also the issue of whether a coherent distinction can be made between revolutions and other forms of regime change, but exploration of that issue would require a lecture of its own. The fourth theme in the semi-developed country literature concerns the bearers of the capacities for economic development. In no society are these likely to be located wholly within the state or within the private sector, developing countries essay. Instead, rather complicated networks able to mount major initiatives may straddle both the public and private sectors. Two debates in political science are relevant here. The first concerns the nature and functions of civil society. In its classical use by Adam Smith and Hegel, civil society refers to a social system sufficiently productively advanced and regulated by morality and law to be able to support both the division of labour and the institution of private property.
Hegel throws in the police and the civil service as regulators of last resort for good measure. Marxists have criticised liberals for representing the interests of a part as the good of the whole; liberals, developing countries essay, it seems, are not the only people capable of making that mistake. A more interesting redefinition of the term has been proposed by Developing countries essay Lipton who reserves for it institutions forming neither part of the state nor part of the market, but whose influence may make both state and market function more efficiently.
The original developing countries essay are probably the most useful; in terms of them, the strengthening of civil society is indeed a prerequisite for development. It amounts to developing new specialisations, developing countries essay, to building institutions with new capacities and to creating the attitudes and legal framework necessary to support these endeavours. Much of the time, developing countries essay, these changes will evolve from existing resources and capacities. But there are also developing countries essay of rapid and discontinuous change in which the positions of major groups within societies are fundamentally changed. This amounts to a social and economic revolution, which may or may not be accompanied by a political revolution.
At the analytical level, the classical Marxist conflation of the social, developing countries essay, economic and political processes is a serious distortion. At the political level, versions of the Marxist formulation have been used to represent the most grinding political oppression as inaugurating social and economic emancipation. The second political debate is about corporatism. This refers to a situation in which powerful organised interests play a major role in political life as opposed to individuals organised into political parties in a liberal democratic system. Powerful organised interests, of course, developing countries essay in liberal democracies but these function as interest groups with no formal political status.
Corporatism emerges when political institutions are shaped to include them. An important distinction needs to be drawn between democratic corporatism where these arrangements are subject to choices made by the electorate in regular elections and authoritarian corporatism where they are not. Fascist Italy and some Latin American countries provide examples of the latter and the European democracies examples of the former. The mildest form of corporatism is probably tripartite institutions comprised of trade unions, employer organisations and state departments, developing countries essay. Democratic corporatism is subject to changes depending on changes of opinion within the electorate; particular forms put together by left of centre governments are often modified or dissolved by succeeding conservative governments.
Authoritarian corporatism, on the other hand, produces an oligarchical system based on deals between elites which sometimes deliver stability and economic growth, quite possibly for long periods of time, but which are not subject to popular approval. Indeed, they are characteristically accompanied by a substantial degree of repression. In this way they contain divergences of interest which would rip liberal democracies apart. Even in democracies, corporatist arrangements developing countries essay a degree of inertia; it appears from the recent literature that the welfare state has been more resistant to conservative dismantling in European countries in which corporatist arrangements have been well developed.
They also deliver control; it has also been suggested that corporatist structures as well as a highly competitive configuration in the labour market result in lower real wages than collective bargaining between employers and industry-wide trade unions. Democratic systems in which linguistic, religious and ethnic identities perform the function of corporations are referred to as consociational and have some of the same authoritarian logic as corporatist systems, developing countries essay. The final theme of interest in the literature on semi-developed countries is that of the transition from authoritarian to democratic rule, the subject of a major scholarly enterprise directed from the Woodrow Wilson International Centre at Princeton University about a decade ago.
Alfred Stepan pointed out that there are a number of distinctive paths leading to democratiastion: in some, warfare and conquest play an integral part, as in Europe after the Second World War. Here, three sub-cases can be distinguished: internal restoration of democracy after external conquest, redemocratisation after a conqueror has been defeated by external force, developing countries essay, and externally monitored installation of democracy. In others, the termination of authoritarian regimes is initiated by developing countries essay wielders of authoritarian power themselves. In yet others, oppositional forces play a major role in terminating authoritarian rule via diffuse protests by grass-roots organisations, general strikes and general withdrawal of support for the government, by the formation of a grand oppositional pact, possibly with consociational features, by organised violent revolt co-ordinated by democratic reformist parties or by Marxist-led revolutionary war though the latter has usually led to the installation of an authoritarian successor regime.
These are all ideal types with rather different dynamics; any actual process is likely to contain elements of more than oue ideal type, developing countries essay. In a companion piece, John Sheahan observes that economic policy in support of democratisation must meet two conflicting requirements.
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Web17/07/ · Developing Country., With a closer view of the economy of a developing country, microcredit and other related type of financing activities most of the times exists Estimated Reading Time: 8 mins Web24/11/ · A developing country usually has a low level of affluent citizens, and higher levels of unemployment. Developing countries also have lower education rates, and WebDeveloping countries are closely linked to debt. This is because developing countries needs to allocate more funds to resolve debt crises. Debt can create a negative effect to the
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